Mercury in feral fish: distribution, accumulation and toxicity

O principal objectivo desta dissertação foi estudar a acumulação de mercúrio em vários tecidos de peixes marinhos, a sua relação com factores biológicos e as respectivas respostas bioquímicas. O trabalho realizado permitiu obter novos conhecimentos sobre a acumulação de mercúrio em peixes, possibilitando avaliar a influência da biodisponibilidade do elemento e as suas possíveis implicações no ambiente. O trabalho foi desenvolvido na Ria de Aveiro (Portugal), uma zona costeira onde existe um gradiente ambiental de mercúrio, o que oferece a oportunidade de estudar a sua acumulação e os seus efeitos tóxicos em condições realísticas. As amostragens foram efectuadas em dois locais considerados críticos em termos de contaminação por mercúrio – Largo do Laranjo (L1 e L2) e num local afastado da principal fonte de poluição, usado como termo de comparação (Referência; R); L1 e L2 corresponderam a locais moderadamente e altamente contaminados, respectivamente. Foram escolhidos juvenis de duas espécies ecologicamente diferentes e representativas da comunidade piscícola local, a tainha garrento (Liza aurata) e o robalo (Dicentrarchus labrax). Em cada local foram recolhidas amostras de água e de sedimento para determinação de mercúrio. Foram quantificadas as concentrações de mercúrio total (T-Hg) e orgânico (O-Hg) em vários tecidos dos peixes, escolhidos tendo em conta a sua função relativamente à toxicocinética e toxicodinâmica de metais. As respostas antioxidantes (Catalase- CAT, glutationa peroxidase- GPx, glutationa reductase- GR, glutationa –S-transferase- GST e conteúdo em glutationa total- GSHt), o dano peroxidativo (LPO) e o conteúdo em metalotioninas (MTs) foram também avaliados. A acumulação de T-Hg foi semelhante para as duas espécies de peixes estudadas, embora D. labrax tenha apresentado concentrações tendencialmente maiores. Ambas as espécies demonstraram capacidade de reflectir o grau de contaminação ambiental existente, indicando claramente que a acumulação depende da concentração ambiental. A acumulação revelou-se específica de cada tecido. O padrão da acumulação em L. aurata foi rim > fígado > músculo > cérebro > guelras > sangue e em D. labrax foi fígado > rim > músculo > cérebro ≈ guelras > sangue. Relativamente à acumulação de OHg, verificou-se que D. labrax exibiu concentrações mais elevadas que L. aurata. Todos os tecidos foram capazes de reflectir diferenças entre R e L2. Os níveis de O-Hg no fígado, músculo e nos conteúdos intestinais foram diferentes entre espécies, sendo mais elevados para D. labrax. As guelras e o intestino foram os tecidos onde se obtiveram os valores mais baixos de O-Hg e observaram-se valores idênticos para as duas espécies. Com excepção das guelras, as concentrações de O-Hg variaram em função do valor observado nos conteúdos intestinais, indicando que a alimentação é a via dominante da acumulação. As concentrações de O-Hg nos conteúdos intestinais revelaram ser uma informação relevante para prever a acumulação de O-Hg nos tecidos, pois verificou-se uma razão praticamente constante entre o teor de mercúrio no fígado, no músculo e nos conteúdos intestinais. A percentagem de O-Hg no músculo e no fígado variou de acordo com o grau de contaminação ambiental e com o tipo de assimilação preferencial do elemento (alimentação vs. água), sugerindo que o fígado exerce um papel protector em relação à acumulação de mercúrio nos outros órgãos. Ambas as espécies de peixes demonstraram ser boas sentinelas da contaminação ambiental com mercúrio (T-Hg e O-Hg), sendo o cérebro e o músculo os tecidos que melhor reflectiram o grau de acumulação com o elemento. A análise conjunta dos dados de bioacumulação e de respostas ao stress oxidativo permitiram estabelecer uma relação entre as concentrações de mercúrio nas guelras, fígado, rim e cérebro e a sua toxicidade. As respostas do cérebro aos efeitos tóxicos do mercúrio revelaram ser específicas de cada espécie. Enquanto que para o cérebro de L. aurata se verificou um decréscimo de todos os parâmetros antioxidantes estudados nos locais contaminados, sem haver evidência de qualquer mecanismo compensatório, no D. labrax observaram-se respostas ambivalentes, que indicam por um lado a activação de mecanismos adaptativos e, por outro, o decréscimo das respostas antioxidantes, ou seja, sinais de toxicidade. Embora em ambas as espécies de peixe fosse evidente uma condição pró-oxidante, o cérebro parece possuir mecanismos compensatórios eficientes, uma vez que não se verificou peroxidação lipídica. As respostas antioxidantes do cérebro de D. labrax foram comparadas em diferentes períodos do ano - quente vs. frio. O período quente mostrou ser mais crítico, uma vez que no período frio não se verificaram diferenças nas respostas entre locais, ou seja, a capacidade antioxidante do cérebro parece ser influenciada pelos factores ambientais. As guelras revelaram susceptibilidade à contaminação por mercúrio, uma vez que se verificou uma tendência para o decréscimo da actividade de CAT em L2 e ausência de indução em L1. O fígado e o rim demonstraram mecanismos adaptativos face ao grau de contaminação moderada (L1), evidenciados pelo aumento de CAT. O rim também demonstrou adaptabilidade face ao grau elevado de contaminação (L2), uma vez que se verificou um aumento GST. Embora o grau de susceptibilidade tenha sido diferente entre os órgãos, não se verificou peroxidação lipídica em nenhum. A determinação do conteúdo em MTs em D. labrax e em L. aurata revelou que este parâmetro depende não só da espécie, mas também do tecido em causa. Assim, em D. labrax foi observado um decréscimo de MTs no cérebro, bem como a incapacidade de síntese de MTs no sangue, guelras, fígado, rim e músculo. Em L. aurata observou-se um aumento do conteúdo em MTs no fígado e no músculo. Estes resultados indicam que a aplicabilidade das MTs como biomarcador de exposição ao mercúrio parece ser incerta, revelando limitações na capacidade de reflectir os níveis de exposição ao metal e por consequência o grau de acumulação. Este trabalho comprova a necessidade de se integrarem estudos de bioacumulação com biomarcadores de efeitos, de modo a reduzir os riscos de interpretações erróneas, uma vez que as respostas nem sempre ocorrem para os níveis mais altos de contaminação ambiental com mercúrio.

Toxicogenomics of natural and anthropogenic effectors in eleutheroembryos

The introduction of chemicals into the environment by human activities may represent a serious risk to environmental and human health. Environmental risk assessment requires the use of efficient and sensitive tools to determine the impact of contaminants on the ecosystems. The use of zebrafish for the toxicity assessment of pharmaceuticals, drugs, and pollutants, is becoming well accepted due to zebrafish unique advantages for the screening of compounds for hazard identification. The aim of the present work is to apply toxicogenomic approaches to identify novel biomarkers and uncovered potential modes of action of classic and emergent contaminants able to disrupt endocrine systems, such as the Retinoic Acid Receptor, Retinoid X Receptor and the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor. This study relies on different nuclear and cytosolic protein receptors and other conditional (ligand- or stress- activated) transcriptional factors that are intimately involved in the regulation of defensome genes and in mechanisms of chemical toxicity. The transcriptomic effects of organic compounds, endogenous compounds, and nanoparticles were analysed during the early stages of zebrafish development. Studying the gene expression profiles of exposed and unexposed organisms to pollutants using microarrays allowed the identification of specific gene markers and to establish a "genetic code" for the tested compounds. Changes in gene expression were observed at toxicant concentrations that did not cause morphological effects. Even at low toxicant concentrations, the observed changes in transcript levels were robust for some target genes. Microarray responses of selected genes were further complemented by the real time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) methodology. The combination of bio-informatic, toxicological analyses of differential gene expression profiles, and biochemical and phenotypic responses across the treatments allowed the identification of uncovered potential mechanisms of action. In addition, this work provides an integrated set of tools that can be used to aid management-decision making by improving the predictive capability to measure environmental stress of contaminants in freshwater ecosystems. This study also illustrates the potential of zebrafish embryos for the systematic, large-scale analysis of chemical effects on developing vertebrates.

Toxicidade de químicos em mistura: o caso da albufeira do Alqueva

In the environment humans and biota are generally exposed to chemical mixtures rather than individual chemicals. Therefore, when assessing the environmental risk of chemicals, it is important to consider chemical mixtures and their possible interactions. The main objective of this work focused on the environmental risk assessment of pesticides found in the water of the Alqueva reservoir and their binary combinations. In this aquatic ecosystem several pesticides were above of the environmental quality standards. But in addition, there were several sampling points of the reservoir where ecotoxicity was observed despite the presence of these contaminants at low concentrations. Here, a component-based approach was used to assess the effects of the pesticide mixtures. The effects of the binary combinations of four herbicides, atrazine (ATR), terbuthylazine (TER), simazine (SIM) and metolachlor (MET), on the growth rate of the microalgae Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and the effects of the binary combinations of the s-triazine herbicides ATR and TER and the insecticide chlorpyrifos (CPF) on the swimming behaviour and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity of the zebrafish Danio rerio were assessed using the two reference models of concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA). Moreover, the combined effects of the herbicides (ATR, TER and MET) and the insecticide CPF were also tested on the swimming behaviour and AChE activity of the aquatic midge Chironomus riparius after the cholinesterases characterization. In this risk characterization, the calculated risk quotients for the herbicides ATR, TER, SIM and MET were higher than 1, meaning that these herbicides present a high risk for the Alqueva ecosystem. As expected, the microalgae P. subcapitata was the most sensitive species to the herbicides. However, despite these herbicides pose no or low risk to other aquatic organisms tested in this study, with EC50 values much higher than the concentrations found in this aquatic ecosystem, they are able to increase the toxic effects of CPF when they are tested in binary mixtures. Moreover, the risk quotients of mixtures of these herbicides present simultaneously in three different locations of the reservoir were also higher than 1, so this confirms the fact that these herbicides when present in mixtures, present a greater risk for this ecosystem than the expected considering each single chemical by its own.

Characterization of proteotoxic stress in zebrafish

A fidelidade da síntese proteica é fundamental para a estabilidade do proteoma e para a homeostasia celular. Em condições fisiológicas normais as células têm uma taxa de erro basal associada e esta muitas vezes aumenta com o envelhecimento e doença. Problemas na síntese das proteínas estão associados a várias doenças humanas e aos processos de envelhecimento. De facto, a incorporação de erros nas proteínas devido a tRNAs carregados pelas aminoacil-tRNA sintetases com o amino ácido errado causa doenças neurodegenerativas em humanos e ratos. Ainda não é claro como é que estas doenças se desenvolvem e se são uma consequência directa da disrupção do proteoma ou se são o resultado da toxicidade produzida pela acúmulação de proteínas mal traduzidas ao nível do ribossoma. Para elucidar como é que as células eucarióticas lidam com proteínas aberrantes e agregados proteicos (stress proteotóxico) desenvolvemos uma estratégia para destabilizar o proteoma. Para isso estabelecemos um sistema de erros de tradução em embriões de peixe zebra que assenta em tRNAs mutantes capazes de incorporar erradamente serina nas proteínas. As proteínas produzidas neste sistema despoletam as vias de resposta ao stress, nomeadamente a via da ubiquitina-proteassoma (UPP – “ubiquitin protesome pathway”) e a via do retículo endoplasmático (UPR – “unfolded protein response”). O stress proteotóxico gerado pelos erros de tradução altera a expressão génica e perfis de expressão de miRNAs, o desenvolvimento embrionário e viabilidade, aumenta a produção de espécies reactivas de oxigénio (ROS), leva ainda à acumulação de agregados proteicos e à disfunção mitocondrial. As malformações embrionárias e fenótipos de viabilidade que observámos foram revertidos por antioxidantes, o que sugere que os ROS desempenham papéis importantes nos fenótipos degenerativos celulares induzidos pela produção de proteínas aberrantes e agregação proteica. Estabelecemos ainda uma linha de peixe zebra transgénica para o estudo do stress proteotóxico. Este trabalho mostra que a destabilização do proteoma em embriões de peixe zebra com tRNAs mutantes é uma boa metodologia para estudar a biologia do stress proteotóxico visto que permite a agregação controlada do proteoma, mimetizando os processos de agregação de proteínas que ocorrem naturalmente durante o envelhecimento e em doenças conformacionais humanas.

Challenges in mercury speciation and fractionation in soil and sediment

This investigation focused on the development, test and validation of methodologies for mercury fractionation and speciation in soil and sediment. After an exhaustive review of the literature, several methods were chosen and tested in well characterised soil and sediment samples. Sequential extraction procedures that divide mercury fractions according to their mobility and potential availability in the environment were investigated. The efficiency of different solvents for fractionation of mercury was evaluated, as well as the adequacy of different analytical instruments for quantification of mercury in the extracts. Kinetic experiments to establish the equilibrium time for mercury release from soil or sediment were also performed. It was found that in the studied areas, only a very small percentage of mercury is present as mobile species and that mobility is associated to higher aluminium and manganese contents, and that high contents of organic matter and sulfur result in mercury tightly bound to the matrix. Sandy soils tend to release mercury faster that clayey soils, and therefore, texture of soil or sediment has a strong influence on the mobility of mercury. It was also understood that analytical techniques for quantification of mercury need to be further developed, with lower quantification limits, particularly for mercury quantification of less concentrated fractions: water-soluble e exchangeable. Although the results provided a better understanding of the distribution of mercury in the sample, the complexity of the procedure limits its applicability and robustness. A proficiency-testing scheme targeting total mercury determination in soil, sediment, fish and human hair was organised in order to evaluate the consistency of results obtained by different laboratories, applying their routine methods to the same test samples. Additionally, single extractions by 1 mol L-1 ammonium acetate solution, 0.1 mol L-1 HCl and 0.1 mol L-1 CaCl2, as well as extraction of the organometallic fraction were proposed for soil; the last was also suggested for sediment and fish. This study was important to update the knowledge on analytical techniques that are being used for mercury quantification, the associated problems and sources of error, and to improve and standardize mercury extraction techniques, as well as to implement effective strategies for quality control in mercury determination. A different, “non chemical-like” method for mercury species identification was developed, optimised and validated, based on the thermo-desorption of the different mercury species. Compared to conventional extraction procedures, this method has advantages: it requires little to no sample treatment; a complete identification of species present is obtained in less than two hours; mercury losses are almost neglectable; can be considered “clean”, as no residues are produced; the worldwide comparison of results obtained is easier and reliable, an important step towards the validation of the method. Therefore, the main deliverables of this PhD thesis are an improved knowledge on analytical procedures for identification and quantification of mercury species in soils and sediments, as well as a better understanding of the factors controlling the behaviour of mercury in these matrices.

Silver nanoparticles flow in an aquatic trophic chain

Silver nanoparticles (AgNP) have been produced and applied in a variety of products ranging from personal care products to food package containers, clothing and medicine utilities. The antimicrobial function of AgNP makes it very useful to be applied for such purposes. Silver (Ag) is a non-essential metal for organisms, and it has been historically present in the environment at low concentrations. Those concentrations of silver increased in the last century due to the use of Ag in the photographic industry and lately are expected to increase due to the use of AgNPs in consumer products. The presence of AgNP in the aquatic environment may pose a risk for aquatic species, and the effects can vary from lethal to sublethal effects. Moreover, the contact of aquatic organisms with AgNP may not cause immediately the death of individuals but it can be accumulated inside the animals and consequently transferred within the food chain. Considering this, the objective of this work was to study the transfer of silver nanoparticles in comparison to silver ions, which was used as silver nitrate, within an aquatic food chain model. To achieve this goal, this study was divided into four steps: the toxicity assessment of AgNP and AgNO3 to aquatic test-species, the bioaccumulation assessment of AgNP and AgNO3 by Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and Daphnia magna under different exposure scenarios, and finally the evaluation of the trophic transfer of Ag through an experimental design that included the goldfish Carassius auratus in a model trophic chain in which all the species were exposed to the worse-case scenario. We observed that the bioconcentration of Ag by P. subcapitata is mainly driven by ionic silver, and that algae cannot internalize these AgNPs, but it does internalizes dissolved Ag. Daphnia magna was exposed to AgNP and AgNO3 through different exposure routes: water, food and both water and food. The worse-case scenario for Daphnia Ag bioaccumulation was by the joint exposure of contaminated water and food, showing that Ag body burdens were higher for AgNPs than for AgNO3. Finally, by exposing C. auratus for 10 days through contaminated water and food (supplied as D. magna), with another 7 days of depuration phase, it was concluded that the 10 days of exposure were not enough for fish to reach a plateau on Ag internal concentration, and neither the 7 days of elimination were sufficient to cause total depuration of the accumulated Ag. Moreover, a higher concentration of Ag was found in the intestine of fish when compared with other organs, and the elimination rate constant of AgNP in the intestine was very low. Although a potential for trophic transfer of AgNP cannot be suggested based in the data acquired in this study, there is still a potential environmental risk for aquatic species.

Interactions of cetaceans with Spanish and Portuguese fisheries in Atlantic waters : costs, benefits and implications for management

With the aim to provide new insights into operational cetacean-fishery interactions in Atlantic waters, this thesis assesses interactions of cetaceans with Spanish and Portuguese fishing vessels operating in Iberian and South West Atlantic waters. Different opportunistic research methodologies were applied, including an interview survey with fishers (mainly skippers) and onboard observations by fisheries observers and skippers, to describe different types of interactions and to identify potential hotspots for cetacean-fishery interactions and the cetacean species most involved, and to quantify the extent and the consequences of these interactions in terms of benefits and costs for cetaceans and fisheries. In addition, the suitability of different mitigation strategies was evaluated and discussed. The results of this work indicate that cetaceans interact frequently with Spanish and Portuguese fishing vessels, sometimes in a beneficial way (e.g. cetaceans indicate fish schools in purse seine fisheries), but mostly with negative consequences (depredation on catch, gear damage and cetacean bycatch). Significant economic loss and high bycatch rates are, however, only reported for certain fisheries and associated with particular cetacean species. In Galician fisheries, substantial economic loss was reported as a result of bottlenose dolphins damaging artisanal coastal gillnets, while high catch loss may arise from common dolphins scattering fish in purse seine fisheries. High cetacean bycatch mortality arises in trawl fisheries, mainly of common dolphin and particularly during trawling in water depths below 350 m, and in coastal set gillnet fisheries (mainly common and bottlenose dolphins). In large-scale bottom-set longline fisheries in South West Atlantic waters, sperm whales may significantly reduce catch rates through depredation on catch. The high diversity of cetacean-fishery interactions observed in the study area indicates that case-specific management strategies are needed to reduce negative impacts on fisheries and cetaceans. Acoustic deterrent devices (pingers) may be used to prevent small cetaceans from approaching and getting entangled in purse seines and set gillnets, although possible problems include cetacean habituation to the pinger sounds, as well as negative side effects on non-target cetaceans (habitat exclusion) and fisheries target species (reduced catch rates). For sardine and horse mackerel, target species of Iberian Atlantic fisheries, no aversive reaction to pinger sounds was detected during tank experiments conducted in the scope of this thesis. Bycatch in trawls may be reduced by the implementation of time/area restrictions of fishing activity. In addition, the avoidance of fishing areas with high cetacean abundance combined with the minimization of fishery-specific sound cues that possibly attract cetaceans, may also help to decrease interactions. In large-scale bottom-set longline fisheries, cetacean depredation on catch may be reduced by covering hooked fish with net sleeves ("umbrellas") provided that catch rates are not negatively affected by this gear modification. Trap fishing, as an alternative fishing method to bottom-set gillnetting and longlining, also has the potential to reduce cetacean bycatch and depredation, given that fish catch rates are similar to the rates obtained by bottom-set gillnets and longlines, whereas cetacean by-catch is unlikely. Economic incentives, such as the eco-certification of dolphin-safe fishing methods, should be promoted in order to create an additional source of income for fishers negatively affected by interactions with cetaceans, which, in turn, may also increase fishers’ willingness to accept and adopt mitigation measures. Although the opportunistic sampling methods applied in this work have certain restrictions concerning their reliability and precision, the results are consistent with previous studies in the same area. Moreover, they allow for the active participation of fishers that can provide important complementary ecological and technical knowledge required for cetacean management and conservation.

Brazilian savanna forest : conservation, medicinal reservoir and bioprospecting

This study aimed to analyse the Brazilian savanna forest from a Legal Reserve (LR) area from a perspective of conservation, reservoir of organic carbon and medicinal biomass for a prospective use of native medicinal plants. An ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological survey was carried out close to a community settled in the rural area in the south of Tocantins, being selected 9 of the most cited species (cajuí- Anacardium othonianum; inharé-Brosimum gaudichaudii; jatobá-Hymenaeae courbaril; jenipapo-Genipa americana, aroeira-Myracrodruon urundeuva; negramina-Siparuna guianensis; barbatimão- Stryphnodendron obovatum; assa peixe-Vernonia brasiliana, embaúba-Cecropia pachystachya). Crude foliar extracts were subjected to a preliminary phytochemical prospection and triage of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity of potential interest in health and familiar agriculture. Phenolic compounds, terpenes and flavonoids were detected in the extracts of most species, which suggests the presence of antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-insect activities. It was evident the need to better know the LR as a reservoir of medicinal biomass in an area under ecological tension where 35% (610ha) of the property is LR and should be protected by law. Therefore, a forest inventory of live woody species was performed using the allometric or indirect method. This identified a rare remnant of Semidecidual Seasonal Forest amidst the largest world savannah, the Cerrado biome. An analysis of the forest average productivity per basal area (m².ha), aerial live biomass (ton.ha-1) and carbon stock was carried out. The forest fragment was considered relatively rich in species and diversity, although showing signs of disturbance and dominance by a few species. Its horizontal structure suggests biotic regeneration conditions. It is an important reservoir of medicinal plants. Of the families (57.5%) presenting medicinal species, 19 from a total of 33 are represented in the area and contain 44% (27) of the total species (61) and 63% (432) of the total individuals catalogued. Medicinal species have ecological importance for the equilibrium of the local flora and represent 80% of the 10 species with higher Importance Value Index (IVI): Tetragastris altissima, Chrysophyllum marginatum, Oenocarpus distichus, Sclerolobium paniculatum, Simarouba versicolor, Alibertia macrophylla, Siparuna guianensis, Maprounea guianensis, Licania parvifolia e Physocalymma scaberrimum. Medicinal productivity was high for this type of phytophysionomy: 183,2 ton. ha-1 of biomass and 91,51 ton. ha-1 of carbon representing 66% of the total biomass and carbon of this Cerrado forest. From this stage S. guianensis (Siparunaceae) was selected for performing bioassays in order to verify its biological activity against microorganisms of health and agricultural relevance. This is a native aromatic medicinal plant recommended as priority for conservation, with local popular medicinal validation and availability of medicinal feedstock (3300 Kg.ha-1), with the foliar fraction giving 38Kg/ha of crude extract and 5L/ha of essential oil. Foliar crude extracts and essential oil were obtained and tested in vitro using a disk diffusion bioassay. Different concentrations of these natural products were tested against gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 29213), gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and ATCC 35218; Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 10145) and fungi (Candida albicans ATCC 6258 e Fusarium oxysporum). The essential oil inhibited the growth of S. aureus in its crude concentration (380μg.mL-1), as well as diluted to half (190μg.mL-1) and a quarter strength (95μg.mL-1). It’s likely that such action is due to sesquiterpenes major components, such as bisabolol and bisabolene (10.35%), measured by gas chromatography (GC-MS, GC-FID). Extracts did not exhibit any antimicrobial activity against the microorganisms tested. The native medicinal plants prospective market is an alternative that favours the conservation of biodiversity while generating benefits for the development of sustainable family productive activities within local ecosystems instead of the current inappropriate uses. This strengthens conservation policies of Legal Reserve in rural settlements and is in agreement with public policy on global warming and climate changes.

Effects of environmental factors on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos

During the last century mean global temperatures have been increasing. According to the predictions, the temperature change is expected to exceed 1.5ºC in this century and the warming is likely to continue. Freshwater ecosystems are among the most sensitive mainly due to changes in the hydrologic cycle and consequently changes in several physico-chemical parameters (e.g. pH, dissolved oxygen). Alterations in environmental parameters of freshwater systems are likely to affect distribution, morphology, physiology and richness of a wide range of species leading to important changes in ecosystem biodiversity and function. Moreover, they can also work as co-stressors in environments where organisms have already to cope with chemical contamination (such as pesticides), increasing the environmental risk due to potential interactions. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of climate change related environmental parameters on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos. The following environmental factors were studied: pH (3.0-12.0), dissolved oxygen level (0-8 mg/L) and UV radiation (0-500 mW/m2). The pesticides studied were the carbamate insecticide carbaryl and the benzimidazole fungicide carbendazim. Stressors were firstly tested separately in order to derive concentration- or intensity-response curves to further study the effects of binary combinations (environmental factors x pesticides) by applying mixture models. Characterization of zebrafish embryos response to environmental stress revealed that pH effects were fully established after 24 h of exposure and survival was only affected at pH values below 5 and above 10. Low oxygen levels also affected embryos development at concentrations below 4 mg/L (delay, heart rate decrease and edema), and at concentrations below 0.5 mg/L the survival was drastically reduced. Continuous exposure to UV radiation showed a strong time-dependent impact on embryos survival leading to 100% of mortality after 72 hours of exposure. The toxicity of pesticides carbaryl and carbendazim was characterized at several levels of biological organization including developmental, biochemical and behavioural allowing a mechanistic understanding of the effects and highlighting the usefulness of behavioural responses (locomotion) as a sensitive endpoint in ecotoxicology. Once the individual concentration response relationship of each stressor was established, a combined toxicity study was conducted to evaluate the effects of pH on the toxicity of carbaryl. We have shown that pH can modify the toxicity of the pesticide carbaryl. The conceptual model concentration addition allowed a precise prediction of the toxicity of the jointeffects of acid pH and carbaryl. Nevertheless, for alkaline condition both concepts failed in predicting the effects. Deviations to the model were however easy to explain as high pH values favour the hydrolysis of carbaryl with the consequent formation of the more toxic degradation product 1- naphtol. Although in the present study such explanatory process was easy to establish, for many other combinations the “interactive” nature is not so evident. In the context of the climate change few scenarios predict such increase in the pH of aquatic systems, however this was a first approach focused in the lethal effects only. In a second tier assessment effects at sublethal level would be sought and it is expectable that more subtle pH changes (more realistic in terms of climate changes scenarios) may have an effect at physiological and biochemical levels with possible long term consequences for the population fitness.